There are many themes to explore in the study of Ancient Persian History, including the architecture of the buildings and cities, depictions of kings, heroes and deities, the relationship between rulers and nature. But for the purposes of this article, three main themes will be discussed: Kingship, the expansion of the Achaemenid territory, and their interactions with peoples of other cultures.
Kingship
The values and beliefs of the Achaemenid kings were reflected in their cuneiform inscriptions carved into the walls of buildings and the bases of statues.
The Achaemenids were very concerned with the legitimacy of their rule, and often used inscriptions to claim direct lineage from previous rulers. They also frequently claim that their rule and their conquest of other regions and peoples was approved of by their deities, especially Ahuramazda, whom they venerated above all other deities.
In the Cyrus Cylinder, Cyrus is called upon by Marduk, a Babylonian god, as his chosen ruler:
“He [Marduk] searched everywhere and then he took a righteous king, his favourite, by the hand, he called out his name: Cyrus, king of Ansan; he pronounced his name to be king all over the world.”
The Cyrus Cylinder, section 12
In the Behistun Inscription, Darius claims his right to rule is legitimised by his lineage:
“I am Darius, the great king, king of kings, the king of Persia, the king of countries, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenid.
King Darius says: My father is Hystaspes; the father of Hystaspes was Arsames; the father of Arsames was Ariaramnes; the father of Ariaramnes was Teispes; the father of Teispes was Achaemenes.
King Darius says: That is why were are called Achaemenids; from antiquity we have been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal.”
The Behistun Inscription, column i, sections 1-3
Darius goes on to claim that Ahuramazda is responsible for his rule:
“King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda am I king; Ahuramazda has granted me the kingdom.”
The Behistun Inscription, column i, section 5
Expansion of Territory
The expansion of territory controlled by the Achaemenids was a characteristic of their rule. The Persian kings sought to continue the work of their predecessors, and justified their conquests of other lands as being aligned with the will of their god, Ahuramazda.
In the Behistun Inscription, Darius continues by saying:
“These are the countries which are subject to me; by the grace of Ahuramazda they became subject to me […] Ahuramazda has granted me this empire; by the grace of Ahuramazda I hold this empire.”
The Behistun Inscription, column i, sections 7-9
As well as expanding their territory, the Achaemenid kings were concerned with large-scale building projects and the creation of cities and palaces within their empire. Xerxes, in the inscription on the Gate of All Nations, draws upon his father’s building work as a foundation to build upon further:
“King Xerxes says: by the favour of Ahuramazda this Gate of All Nations I built. Much else that is beautiful was built in this Persepolis, which I built and my father built.”
Gate of All Nations Inscription, lines 11-17
Interactions with Other Peoples
An interesting theme when studying the Achaemenid Empire is their attitudes towards, and treatment of, the other peoples and cultures they come into contact with. There is some variation in how certain cultures were treated by the Persians, compared with others.
For example, when Cyrus the Great took control of Babylon, he claims:
“My vast army marched into Babylon in peace; I did not permit anyone to frighten the people of Suner and Akkad. I sought the welfare of the city of Babylon and all its sacred centres. As for the citizens of Babylon, […] I relieved their weariness and freed them from their service. Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced over my good deeds.”
The Cyrus Cylinder, sections 24-26
On the other hand, in the Daiva Inscription, Xerxes claims to have prevented a group of people from worshipping what he calls “demons” and instead orders them to worship Ahuramazda instead:
“And among these countries there was a place where previously demons were worshippied. Afterwards, by the grace of Ahuramazda I destroyed that sanctuary of demons, and I proclaimed: The demons shall not be worshipped! […] Worship Ahuramazda at the proper time and in the proper manner.”
The Daiva Inscription, section 4
One statue of Darius is interesting in that it is in an Egyptian style, with Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions reading:
“His Majesty has consecrated this long-lasting statue fashioned in his likeness so that the memory of his spirit would dwell forever next to Atum.”
Statue of Darius, Susa
Atum is an Egyptian deity, and it would appear that Darius reveres the Egyptian god in this inscription. However, another inscription on the same statue is in Persian cuneiform, and reads:
“A great god is Ahuramazda […] This is the statue, made of stone, which Darius ordered to be made in Egypt. This is how everyone who will see this in the future, will know that the Persian man ruled in Egypt.”
Statue of Darius, Susa, DSab Inscription
Darius is giving two very different messages here; one intended for his Egyptian subjects which purports to present himself as a pharoah, an Egyptian ruler who worships an Egyptian god. The other, intended for his Persian audience, proclaims his veneration for Ahuramazda and his Persian rule over a foreign land.
So we can see from these inscriptions that the Achaemenids’ attitudes towards the peoples they conquered and ruled was sometimes quite complex and nuanced; although they appeared in their inscriptions to be tolerant of other deities and cultural practices, they also had an empire to run. From these inscriptions it would appear that the Achaemenids had a strategic approach to ruling over other peoples, where they would appeal to people in their own language and using their own cultural and religious symbols.