Cyrus the Great

Nov

2019

The Cyrus Cylinder

The Cyrus Cylinder is a barrel-shaped clay tablet with a cuneiform inscription. The text was considered very important when it was first discovered in the 19th century, because it seemed to confirm the biblical sources (Isaiah, Ezra and 2 Chronicles) about Cyrus the Great allowing the Jews to return from their captivity in Babylon. Actually, it doesn’t strictly say this, but the text is still a very useful primary source for the rule of Cyrus, and the way he tried to present himself as a ruler.

Cyrus used common themes in Babylonian and Assyrian ideas of good rulership to present himself as the “ideal ruler” after conquering them. He used actions to appeal to the conquered people, such as returning religious statues and restoring the temples.

In the 20th century, the Cyrus Cylinder was used as propaganda by the Iranian Shah Mohammed Reza Palavi in 1971, and led to it being described as the world’s “first human rights charter”. This is one of many examples of an ancient historical text being misinterpreted and used to support modern political propaganda.

In the text of the cylinder, Cyrus says that an incompetent leader (i.e. Nabonidus) was ruling in Babylonia, preventing people from worshipping Marduk (a Babylonian god) in the way they were used to. At this, the gods rise up in anger, and Marduk decides to find a new ruler for Babylonia. He searches everywhere and finds Cyrus, king of Anšan, who he decides shall be king of the whole world. Marduk takes Cyrus and his army, brings him to Babylon and enables him to conquer Babylon peacefully. All the Babylonians revere him, and he goes on to list the actions he took to ensure the welfare of the Babylonians – restoring temples, increasing religious offerings, building works. Cyrus also describes himself as the gods’ favourite, and offers a prayer that the gods will continue to protect and support him. He also lists his lineage (son of Cambyses I, grandson of Cyrus I, and descendent of Teispes) as part of his right to rule.

Translation of Fragment A
The Tyranny of Nabonidus
[1] [When…] …

[2] … of the four quarters

[3] [x x x] /x x\ An incompetent person was installed to exercise lordship over his country.

[4] /and?\ […] he imposed upon them.

[5] A counterfeit of Esagila he ma[de, and…]… for Ur and the rest of the cultic centers,

[6] a ritual which was improper to them, an [unholy] di[splay offering x x x without] fear he daily recited. Irreverently,

[7] he put an end to the regular offerings (and) he in[terfered in the cultic centers; x x x he] established in the sacred centers. By his own plan, he did away with the worship of Marduk, the king of the gods,

[8] he continually did evil against Marduk’s city. Daily, […] without interruption, he imposed the corvée upon its inhabitants unrelentingly, ruining them all.

Marduk’s Anger
[9] Upon hearing their cries, the lord of the gods became furiously angry and [x x x] their borders; the gods who lived among them forsook their dwellings,

[10] angry that he had brought them to Babylon. Marduk, the ex[alted, the lord of the gods], turned towards all the habitations that were abandoned and

Marduk Finds a New King
[11] all the people of Sumer and Akkad, who had become corpses. He was reconciled and had mercy upon them. He examined and checked all the entirety of the lands, all of them,

[12] he searched everywhere and then he took a righteous king, his favorite, by the hand, he called out his name: Cyrus, king of Anšan; he pronounced his name to be king all over the world.

[13] He made the land of Gutium and all the Umman-mandanote bow in submission at his feet. And he{I.e., Cyrus.}} shepherded with justice and righteousness all the black-headed people,

[14] over whom he had given him victory. Marduk, the great lord, guardian of his people, looked with gladness upon his good deeds and upright heart.

Cyrus Takes Babylon
[15] He ordered him to go to his city Babylon. He set him on the road to Babylon and like a companion and a friend, he went at his side.

[16] His vast army, whose number, like water of the river, cannot be known, marched at his side fully armed.

[17] He made him enter his city Babylon without fighting or battle; he saved Babylon from hardship. He delivered Nabonidus, the king who did not revere him, into his hands.

[18] All the people of Babylon, all the land of Sumer and Akkad, princes and governors, bowed to him and kissed his feet. They rejoiced at his kingship and their faces shone.

[19] Lord by whose aid the dead were revived and who had all been redeemed from hardship and difficulty, they greeted him with gladness and praised his name.

Cyrus’ Titles
[20] I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, mighty king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters,

[21] the son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anšan, grandson of Cyrus, great king, king of Anšan, descendant of Teispes, great king, king of Anšan,

[22] of an eternal line of kingship, whose rule Bêl and Nabu love, whose kingship they desire fot their hearts’ pleasure. When I entered Babylon in a peaceful manner,

The Prince of Peace
[23] I took up my lordly abode in the royal palace amidst rejoicing and happiness. Marduk, the great lord, /established as his fate (šimtu)\ for me a magnanimous heart of one who loves Babylon, and I daily attended to his worship.

[24] My vast army marched into Babylon in peace; I did not permit anyone to frighten the people of [Sumer] /and\ Akkad.

[25] I sought the welfare of the city of Babylon and all its sacred centers. As for the citizens of Babylon, [x x x upon wh]om he imposed a corvée which was not the gods’ wish and not befitting them,

[26] I relieved their weariness and freed them from their service. Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced over [my good] deeds.

Religious Measures
[28] and in peace, before him, we mov[ed] around in friendship. [By his] exalted [word], all the kings who sit upon thrones

[29] throughout the world, from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, who live in the dis[tricts far-off], the kings of the West, who dwell in tents, all of them,

[30] brought their heavy tribute before me and in Babylon they kissed my feet. From [Babylon] to Aššur and (from) Susa,

[31] Agade, Ešnunna, Zamban, Me-Turnu, Der, as far as the region of Gutium, the sacred centers on the other side of the Tigris, whose sanctuaries had been abandoned for a long time,

[32] I returned the images of the gods, who had resided there, to their places and I let them dwell in eternal abodes. I gathered all their inhabitants and returned to them their dwellings.

[33] In addition, at the command of Marduk, the great lord, I settled in their habitations, in pleasing abodes, the gods of Sumer and Akkad, whom Nabonidus, to the anger of the lord of the gods, had brought into Babylon.

Cyrus’ Prayer
[34] May all the gods whom I settled in their sacred centers ask daily

[35] of Bêl and Nâbu that my days be long and may they intercede for my welfare. May they say to Marduk, my lord: “As for Cyrus, the king who reveres you, and Cambyses, his son,

Translation of Fragment B
[36] [end of prayer].”
The people of Babylon blessed my kingship, and I settled all the lands in peaceful abodes.

Building Activities
[37] I [daily increased the number offerings to N] geese, two ducks, and ten turledoves above the former offerings of geese, ducks, and turtledoves.

[38] […] Dur-Imgur-Enlil, the great wall of Babylon, its de[fen]se, I sought to strengthen

[39] […] The quay wall of brick, which a former king had bu[ilt, but had not com]pleted its construction,

[40] […who had not surrounded the city] on the outside, which no former king had made, (who) a levy of work[men (or: soldiers) had led] in[to] Babylon,

[41] [… with bitumen] and bricks, I built anew [and completed th]eir [job].

[42] [… magnificent gates of cedar] with a bronze overlay, thresholds and door-sockets [cast in copper, I fixed in all] their [doorways].

[43] [x x x] An inscription with the name of Aššurbanipal, a king who had preceded [me, I s]aw [in its midst].

[44] […]

[45] […] for eternity.

From: The Cyrus Cylinder on Livius.com

Sep

2019

Themes in Ancient Persian History

There are many themes to explore in the study of Ancient Persian History, including the architecture of the buildings and cities, depictions of kings, heroes and deities, the relationship between rulers and nature. But for the purposes of this article, three main themes will be discussed: Kingship, the expansion of the Achaemenid territory, and their interactions with peoples of other cultures.

Kingship

The values and beliefs of the Achaemenid kings were reflected in their cuneiform inscriptions carved into the walls of buildings and the bases of statues.

The Achaemenids were very concerned with the legitimacy of their rule, and often used inscriptions to claim direct lineage from previous rulers. They also frequently claim that their rule and their conquest of other regions and peoples was approved of by their deities, especially Ahuramazda, whom they venerated above all other deities.

In the Cyrus Cylinder, Cyrus is called upon by Marduk, a Babylonian god, as his chosen ruler:

“He [Marduk] searched everywhere and then he took a righteous king, his favourite, by the hand, he called out his name: Cyrus, king of Ansan; he pronounced his name to be king all over the world.”
The Cyrus Cylinder, section 12

In the Behistun Inscription, Darius claims his right to rule is legitimised by his lineage:

“I am Darius, the great king, king of kings, the king of Persia, the king of countries, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenid.
King Darius says: My father is Hystaspes; the father of Hystaspes was Arsames; the father of Arsames was Ariaramnes; the father of Ariaramnes was Teispes; the father of Teispes was Achaemenes.
King Darius says: That is why were are called Achaemenids; from antiquity we have been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal.”
The Behistun Inscription, column i, sections 1-3

Darius goes on to claim that Ahuramazda is responsible for his rule:

“King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda am I king; Ahuramazda has granted me the kingdom.”
The Behistun Inscription, column i, section 5

Expansion of Territory

The expansion of territory controlled by the Achaemenids was a characteristic of their rule. The Persian kings sought to continue the work of their predecessors, and justified their conquests of other lands as being aligned with the will of their god, Ahuramazda.

In the Behistun Inscription, Darius continues by saying:

“These are the countries which are subject to me; by the grace of Ahuramazda they became subject to me […] Ahuramazda has granted me this empire; by the grace of Ahuramazda I hold this empire.”
The Behistun Inscription, column i, sections 7-9

As well as expanding their territory, the Achaemenid kings were concerned with large-scale building projects and the creation of cities and palaces within their empire. Xerxes, in the inscription on the Gate of All Nations, draws upon his father’s building work as a foundation to build upon further:

“King Xerxes says: by the favour of Ahuramazda this Gate of All Nations I built. Much else that is beautiful was built in this Persepolis, which I built and my father built.”
Gate of All Nations Inscription, lines 11-17

Interactions with Other Peoples

An interesting theme when studying the Achaemenid Empire is their attitudes towards, and treatment of, the other peoples and cultures they come into contact with. There is some variation in how certain cultures were treated by the Persians, compared with others.

For example, when Cyrus the Great took control of Babylon, he claims:

“My vast army marched into Babylon in peace; I did not permit anyone to frighten the people of Suner and Akkad. I sought the welfare of the city of Babylon and all its sacred centres. As for the citizens of Babylon, […] I relieved their weariness and freed them from their service. Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced over my good deeds.”
The Cyrus Cylinder, sections 24-26

On the other hand, in the Daiva Inscription, Xerxes claims to have prevented a group of people from worshipping what he calls “demons” and instead orders them to worship Ahuramazda instead:

“And among these countries there was a place where previously demons were worshippied. Afterwards, by the grace of Ahuramazda I destroyed that sanctuary of demons, and I proclaimed: The demons shall not be worshipped! […] Worship Ahuramazda at the proper time and in the proper manner.”
The Daiva Inscription, section 4

One statue of Darius is interesting in that it is in an Egyptian style, with Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions reading:

“His Majesty has consecrated this long-lasting statue fashioned in his likeness so that the memory of his spirit would dwell forever next to Atum.”
Statue of Darius, Susa

Atum is an Egyptian deity, and it would appear that Darius reveres the Egyptian god in this inscription. However, another inscription on the same statue is in Persian cuneiform, and reads:

“A great god is Ahuramazda […] This is the statue, made of stone, which Darius ordered to be made in Egypt. This is how everyone who will see this in the future, will know that the Persian man ruled in Egypt.”
Statue of Darius, Susa, DSab Inscription

Darius is giving two very different messages here; one intended for his Egyptian subjects which purports to present himself as a pharoah, an Egyptian ruler who worships an Egyptian god. The other, intended for his Persian audience, proclaims his veneration for Ahuramazda and his Persian rule over a foreign land.

So we can see from these inscriptions that the Achaemenids’ attitudes towards the peoples they conquered and ruled was sometimes quite complex and nuanced; although they appeared in their inscriptions to be tolerant of other deities and cultural practices, they also had an empire to run. From these inscriptions it would appear that the Achaemenids had a strategic approach to ruling over other peoples, where they would appeal to people in their own language and using their own cultural and religious symbols.

Sep

2019

Ancient Persia – Primary Sources

Herodotus – 5th Century BC

“This is the display of the inquiry of Herodotus of Helicarnassus, so that things done by man not be forgotten in time, and that great and marvellous deeds, some displayed by the Hellenes, some by the barbarians, not lose their glory, including among others what was the cause of their waging war on each other.”
Herodotus, The Histories 1.1 “Preface”

So begins Herodotus’ work The Histories (‘ἱστορία’ meaning ‘enquiries’ in Greek), a document recording Herodotus’ enquiries into the reasons for the Greek-Persian wars.

Herodotus Ancient Greek Source — Bust of Herodotus

Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian, born in Helicarnassus (modern day Bodrum, Turkey), a city in Lydia, which was at that time a part of the Persian Empire. He lived between c. 484 and 425 BC.

Herodotus is sometimes known as the ‘Father of History’ (according to Cicero) or the first historian, since he broke away from previous writing styles of recording deeds in epic poetry intermingled with mythology and supernatural beings. Herodotus instead sought to preserve the facts of the events where possible, and sometimes gave two accounts he had heard, when he could not ascertain which was true.

Herodotus wrote about the Persian Achaemenid Kings such as Cyrus the Great, Darius the Great and Xerxes; and about the events leading up to and contributing to tensions between the Persians and the Greeks, and about their battles, victories and defeats.

However, he was also prone to digressing, about all sorts of other subjects, in order to give the background information he felt necessary for his reader to understand the situation. Although all these digressions can sometimes make the narrative difficult to follow, it has provided modern historians with a wealth of information about the geography of the region, ethnography of the diverse peoples and cultures, descriptions of buildings and cities, transport, administration of the empire and the strategies used in warfare, helping us to build up a picture of the ancient world in and around Greece, Asia Minor and the Middle East.

Although Herodotus has not always been accepted as reliable, for many events of this period he is our only literary source. Sometimes there are other conflicting accounts which call into question his reliability; however on the whole most historians accept that Herodotus is fairly reliable, although it is always worth bearing in mind that no writer is completely free from bias.

Xenophon – 5th / 4th Century BC

Xenophon Ancient Greek Source — Bust of Xenophon

Xenophon was an Athenian Greek philosopher, soldier and historian, and a student of the famous philosopher Socrates. Xenophon was a mercenary in the Persian army under Cyrus the Younger.

He wrote a number of works, including ‘Hellenica’ covering the final years of the Peloponnesian War, and ‘Anabasis’ about the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes II, in which Xenophon took part alongside Cyrus the Younger, and about their journey home.

But for the Achaemenid period, the most important work is the ‘Cyropaedia’, which he wrote about the background and rule of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire, a ruler Xenophon admired and idealised. Xenophon’s ‘Cyropaedia’ was not just intended as a history of the life of Cyrus the Great, but as a way of setting out his beliefs about rulership, and his political and moral philosophy. Therefore some of his writings have an ulterior motive and therefore we have to be careful when using this source.

Compared to Herodotus’ versions of events, Xenophon often embellishes the truth and fictionalises some of the events of Cyrus’ life. However there are occasions where Xenophon’s account is taken as the more likely, such as his version of Cyrus’ accession to the throne of Medea.

As with all primary sources, and particularly ancient sources, it is always important to bear in mind the potential bias in the writings of any given author. Almost everyone will have a preference for one ruler over another, or one philosophy over another, and therefore their beliefs will be reflected in their writing.

Ctesias – 5th Century BC

Ctesias Ancient Greek Source — Bust of Ctesias

Ctesias was born in Cnidus, Caria, which was near to Helicarnassus and also a part of the Persian Empire at the time he lived there (modern day Turkey). He was a physician to Artaxerxes II, whom he accompanied in expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger. (Remember, Xenophon fought as a mercenary with Cyrus the Younger against Artaxerxes II.)

His work ‘Persica’ was written about the history of Assyria and Babylon prior to the founding of the Persian Empire, and covers the history of the Achaemenid kings until 398 BC. The work was written in opposition to Herodotus, to give an opposing view.

‘Persica’ only comes down to us in fragments that have been preserved in the writings of other authors, including Photius, who made an abridgement of Ctesias’ work, and the writings of Athanaeus, Plutarch and Diodorus Siculus.

Ctesias’ history of Assyria does not always agree with the archaeological evidence (cuneiform inscriptions). Later writers do not credit Ctesias with much reliability, but it is useful to have a contrasting view to that of Herodotus, which in many cases is our only or main source. Sometimes it is necessary to evaluate and compare two or more sources relating to an event and use our best judgement to work out which is more likely to be true.

Cuneiform Inscriptions

Fortunately, we do not need to rely on Greek writers alone. We also have a number of cuneiform inscriptions from the period, commissioned by the Achaemenid kings themselves. Cuneiform is a type of script made by carving or chiselling wedge-shaped marks into stone, metal or clay to produce characters (see the image below for an example). It was first used by the Sumerians, but many cultures of Mesopotamia used cuneiform script including the Elamites, Assyrians and Babylonians, and indeed the Achaemenid kings used it to leave inscriptions on the walls and friezes of their palaces, and on the bases of statues.

Cuneiform Inscription Ancient Persia — A sample of cuneiform script showing the wedge-shaped marks used to create the characters.

Cuneiform inscriptions are useful because they give us an insight into the beliefs and values of the Achaemenid kings themselves, and of the image they wished to portray, to other rulers, their citizens and their enemies.

Although these inscriptions are a form of propaganda – a deliberate portrayal of a ruler in a particular light, in order to influence the way they are perceived by their enemies or their subjects – and are therefore not completely reliable as a factual interpretation of events, they are nevertheless useful for gaining an understanding into the motives of the kings, the views they held, and the messages they wanted to convey.

Among the most useful cuneiform inscriptions for this period are:

The Cyrus Cylinder – an account of Cyrus’ accession to the throne of Medea and Persia that contradicts Herodotus.
The Behistun Inscription – a long inscription in which Darius I claims lineage to previous kings and therefore authority to rule; lists of his conquered territories, narratives to other events, and some of his religious beliefs.
Darius’ Tomb Inscriptions – outlines Darius’ ideas of good and bad citizenship, what he expects from his subjects.
Xerxes’ inscriptions at the Gate of All Nations – contains Xerxes’ claim to have continued the work of his father
People Lists – there are a number of these, and can be found with frieze depictions of people in various cultural/ethnographic costumes bearing local produce. The inscriptions list the names of the groups of people that the depictions relate to.

There are many more inscriptions that are useful for the study of the Achaemenid period, which will be looked at in more depth in other articles.

Sep

2019

Geography of Ancient Persia

The geographical setting for the Achaemenid Empire centred around (modern day) South Western Iran, and gradually increased in territory spreading over much of the Middle East, encompassing modern Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, western Pakistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, southern Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Iraq, Kuwait, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, Lebanon, Turkey, Bulgaria, Egypt and north eastern Libya.

Achaemenid Map of Ancient Persia 4 — A Map of the Middle East showing the extent of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.
Red: Cyrus’ original territory; Orange: Expansion under Cyrus; Bright Yellow:
Expansion under Cambyses; Pale Yellow: Expansion under Darius. Click to Enlarge.

To put this into perspective, the Persian Empire covered an area around twice as large as the Roman Empire at its height, encompassing dozens of differing ethnographic peoples, languages and cultures. An area of approximately 8 million square kilometres (3.1 million square miles), about 50% larger than the whole of Europe, and almost as many different languages!

Remember that this was over two and a half thousand years ago, before industry and electricity, when messages were carried over land on foot, architecture was carved and built by hand, with no machinery to speed up the process. This only serves to highlight the enormous wealth and command of resources the Achaemenid Kings had at their disposal, and the scale of the power and ambition they had in order to commission the construction of their palaces and cities.

Apadana Persepolis Ancient Persia Reconstrcution — A reconstruction of the Apadana at Persepolis, showing the scale of the building and the city.

When studying the interactions between Ancient Greece and the Ancient Persian Empire, it is important to remember the scale and context. During this period, what we would later call Ancient Greece was rather a collection of individual city-states governing themselves, spread over the mainland and the islands of the Aegean. By contrast, the Persian, or more accurately the Achaemenid Empire was a vast territory, encompassing multitudes of ethnicities, cultures, deities and languages, all under the rule of one monarch.

Achaemenid Map of Ancient Persia 6 — A map of the Middle East showing the extent of the Achaemenid Empire at its peak (Orange) and by contrast, the territory held by the various Greek city-states (Green). Click to enlarge.

The map above goes some way to putting into perspective the sheer size and spread of the Persian Empire compared to the Greek territories. Consider that the rulers of this vast dominion viewed the Greeks as little more than peripheral territory for acquisition; just one of its many borderlands which included such diverse geographical regions as Northern Africa, India, Mongolia and what we would now call southern and eastern Europe.

What is perhaps more remarkable is that the Greeks were able to hold them off as long as they did, at Thermopylae, and in fact to defeat their Persian invaders at Salamis, Plataea and ultimately, under Alexander the Great, altogether. In less than 150 years after the Persian invasion, Alexander was able to seize control of virtually the entire empire and divide it up as a new Greek empire.

Sep

2019

Timeline of Ancient Persia

In this introduction to the history of Ancient Persia (and in particular the Empire of the Achaemenid Kings beginning with Cyrus the Great and ending with Darius III), some of the earlier movements of peoples in the Near Eastern regions have been included for context.

The Achaemenid period spans approximately 220 years, from around 550 BC when Cyrus the Great succeeded King Astyages of the Medes as ruler of both Medea and Persia, until around 330 BC when Alexander the Great defeated Darius III and ended Achaemenid rule.

Earlier Periods

c. 3400 BC – Elamite Kingdom begins in South West Iran and Mesopotamia

c. 2000 BC – Nomadic peoples including the Medes, Persians and Scythians migrate from central Asia to Iran

c. 1000 BC – Continuing migrations of nomadic peoples in and around the Near East

c. 628-551 BC – The life of Zoroaster, according to Pahlavi sources

Achaemenid Timeline

553-550 BC – Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) succeeds the Median king Astyages and becomes ruler of Persia and Medea, founding the Achaemenid Empire

547-546 BC – Cyrus conquers Phrygia, Anatolia and Cyprus

539 BC – Cyrus captures Babylon and liberates the Jews from captivity

530 BC – Cyrus dies, Cambyses II (Cyrus’ son) succeeds to the throne

525 BC – Cambyses II conquers Egypt

522 BC – Cambyses II dies, Darius I succeeds to the throne

515 BC – Darius I moves the Persian capital from Pasargadae to Persepolis

499 BC – Ionian Rebellion

492 BC – Darius I decides to invade Greece

490 BC – Darius I defeated at the Battle of Marathon

486 BC – Darius I dies, Xerxes succeeds to the throne

485 BC – Babylon destroyed by Xerxes

480 BC – Battle of Thermopylae, Spartans defeated by Persians

480 BC – Battle of Salamis, Themistocles defeats Xerxes’ fleets

480 BC – Xerxes prepares for invasion, building canals and bridges

480 BC – Sack of Athens

479 BC – Xerxes defeated at Plataea

478 BC – Xerxes builds Gate of All Nations, Palace of Xerxes

449 BC – Peace agreed between Athens and Persia (Peace of Callias)

448 BC – Ionian cities independent from Persia

412 BC – Sparta allies with Persia

401 BC – Xenophon and the Greek mercenaries retreat from Persia

380 BC – Darius III succeeds to the throne

341 BC – Conquest of Egypt by the Persians is completed

336 BC – Artaxerxes III builds the Hall of 32 Columns

334 BC – Alexander the Great invades the Persian Empire

333 BC – Battle of Issus, Darius III Defeated

331 BC – Alexander the Great conquers Egypt

331 BC – Battle of Gaugamela

330 BC – Darius III dies, Alexander the Great conquers Persia and Mesopotamia, Persepolis burned and looted, ending the Achaemenid Empire

323 BC – Alexander the Great dies, empire divided between his generals, beginning the Seleucid Empire

Cyrus the Great

The Cyrus Cylinder

Themes in Ancient Persian History

Kingship

Expansion of Territory

Interactions with Other Peoples

Ancient Persia – Primary Sources

Herodotus – 5th Century BC

Xenophon – 5th / 4th Century BC

Ctesias – 5th Century BC

Cuneiform Inscriptions

Geography of Ancient Persia

Timeline of Ancient Persia

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